Administrative Research Paper
Points to Ponder Professor CaetiThe following outline is intended to serve as a guideline for writing your ARP. First, a few general points to ponder while you are writing your paper:
Good research reporting requires good English. We need to communicate our results clearly and precisely: nothing should be left to the reader's imagination. Whenever you use unduly complex terminology or sentence structure, communication is reduced.
Always remember who your audience is. Terms and assumptions acceptable to your immediate colleagues may only confuse other readers. You should write this paper as if you are authoring an article for Justice Quarterly. However, you will have to be much more descriptive and basic than a professional journal article in JQ.
Caeti's Rule of Thumb #1
Write your research paper as if your are writing to an audience of third graders.
Research reporting has several functions:
1. the report communicates to an audience a body of specific data and ideas. The report should provide those specifics clearly and with sufficient detail to permit an informed evaluation.
2. the research report should be viewed as a contribution to the general body of scientific knowledge. While remaining appropriately humble, you should always regard your research report as an addition to what we know about behavior.
3. the report should stimulate and direct further inquiry.
Your ARP will be no different. This requires a great deal of time and effort, especially in the literature review section. Further, you need to take writing well very seriously, it is a major problem in our field that I have had to deal with in both the academic and practitioner sides of criminal justice. When you are finished with your paper, you must proofread the material.
Caeti’s Rule of Thumb #2
When proofreading your paper, read it out loud. If it doesn't make sense when you say it, it doesn't make sense when I or anyone else reads it.Caeti’s Rule of Thumb #3
Write clearly and concisely. Make your points and move on, expand where something is unclear without B.S.’ing. Further, if you wouldn't feel comfortable saying what you wrote out loud to a chief of police, judge, or prison warden, then you probably shouldn't put it that way in your text.
1. Title Page
The title page should contain the following items arranged in a pleasing and logical order: The title of the paper, the author, the class, the professor, and anything else you judge relevant for the front page.
2. Abstract
An abstract is a brief summary (usually 200 words or less) of a research project placed at the beginning of the report. It enables the reader to quickly determine the relevance of the report. Abstracts usually contain a succinct statement of the research topic(s) covered in the report, a brief description of the methodology involved, and a summary of the findings or conclusions. Although the abstract is found at the beginning of the research report, it cannot be written until the research has been completed, since a brief discussion of the outcome(s) of the research is included.
3. Introduction
The introduction places the research problem in context. General historical and theoretical frameworks into which the problem you are examining fits are discussed. Major theoretical trends and their principal proponents are mentioned. Finally, the areas in which the subject remains problematic are discussed, leading up to the current research, which addresses one or more of those areas. An in-depth analysis of the trends and problems should be undertaken in the literature review. The introduction should address and contain the following:
- An initial layout the area of interest
- A full discussion and outline of the primary problems and issues
- An introduction of the subject matter, literature, and research goals
- A full and complete thesis statement
This research will…
This will be accomplished by…
This will shed light on…
This research will show…
Essentially a thesis statement outlines the entire research and succinctly lists goals, objectives, and implications of the research4. Research purposes, objectives, and questions (End of the Introduction)
Some reports may focus on the exploration of a topic of interest. Inherent in this aim is the tentativeness and incompleteness of the conclusions. You should clearly indicate to your audience the exploratory aim of the study and point out the shortcomings of this type of research. Many studies have a descriptive purpose, and the research reports from such studies will have a descriptive element. Other reports have an explanatory aim; you wish to point to causal relationships among variables. These must be described in detail in latter sections of the report. Finally, some reports may have the aim of proposing action. Whatever the aim, it must be specified and explained in lurid detail. You are probably thinking, "well didn't I do this in the introduction and thesis statement?" Well yes, you did. However, the introduction and thesis should be a brief and succinct review of the goals. This section should outline and discuss them in lurid and convincing detail.
5. Literature Review
There are two sections to the literature review:
1. Historical, Legal, and Theoretical Context--this is where you develop the contextual base of your research. You may or may not have all three of the areas listed, it is up to you to figure this out. Does your topic have a history, legal past, or theoretical context. In essence, this section relates to the "past" of you topic--what have people said about these issues in relation to your topic. This is the "philosophical" section of the literature review.
2. Review of Programs and/or Practice--this is where you review what other programs or policies exist regarding your topic. In essence, what have other people done. Here you need to outline the results of previous empirical research. Further, you need to report on the practices and policies of other political entities who are dealing with problems relevant to your issue. While the first section is philosophical, this section is empirical and grounded.
The literature review is a comprehensive report of existing research and theoretical literature that are related to the problem. Depending on the subject matter and the writer's perspective, the literature review is presented in chronological, thematic, categorical, or some combination of these three. For example, you could present a chronological and thematic literature review.
The literature review should include references to classic works in the area as well as professional journals, book, periodicals, newspapers, papers presented at professional meetings, doctoral dissertations, and other sources. The more thorough the review, the less likely that the work will be open to criticism on the grounds the others have conducted the same or similar research in the past, or that important areas that others have pointed out have been overlooked. In addition, the research may find much information that will be of assistance in developing measurement techniques, locating relevant samples, deciding what type of an analysis should be conducted, and avoiding pitfalls along the way.
Because every research report should be placed in the context of the general body of scientific knowledge, it is important to indicate where your report fits in that picture. Having presented the general purpose of your study, you should then bring the reader up to date on the previous research in the area, pointing to general agreements and disagreements among the previous researchers.
To an extent, your review of the literature serves a bibliographic function for readers, indexing the previous research on a given topic. This can be overdone, however, and you should avoid an opening paragraph that runs three pages, mentioning every previous study in the field. In general, the literature review should contain the following:
- Review Theoretical Literature
- Review Historical Literature
- Review Legal Literature
- Review Practical Literature (i.e., literature concerning model programs).
- Review Programmatic Literature
- Review Evaluation Literature
- Summarize research
- Outline gaps in existing research
- Provide a "state of the topic" address
A frequently asked question is, "How do I begin my lit review?" The following sources may prove helpful:
1. Ask a professor, odds are they can point to at least a couple of cites
2. Ask a fellow student who may have done similar research
3. Computer search by topic in the library
4. Use a criminal justice index
5. Use someone else's bibliographyRemember, a literature review is just like a criminal investigation--once you have one good witness (in this case an article), your investigation becomes easier.
Another frequently asked question is, "How many sources do I need?" The answer depends upon the type of research being conducted, but, in general, you will be through with the literature review when you find the same names and the same articles and books appearing repeatedly in your search. After examining these works thoroughly, you will reach a saturation point, at which time you will be familiar with the classics in your research area and the most recent research in your area. At this point, further search for literature will only delay the beginning of your report. The point at which a literature review is finished is arbitrary, you could go on searching indefinitely. However, you want to be sure that you have covered your bases.
The very last portion of a literature review is a comparison and contrast of the research findings and practices you've reviewed. In short, a quick summation of what you've reviewed which leads into the next section.
6. Discussion of Relevant Issues (Refer to Graphic)
A detailed analysis of the central problem, sub problems, and other issues concerning your topic in relation to your forgoing review. THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PART OF YOUR PAPER. This section serves the function of analysis and creativity, this is where you show your expertise. Following completion of this project, you will be an expert in whatever area you choose to write about.
The first part of this section requires you to identify and summarize the key problems and issues. You can use other people's assessments of what the key issues are (be sure to cite them) or you can think up your own. You should probably do both. Your job here is to determine what the central problem is you are addressing. Next, what other problems are present because of or in relation to the central problem? Finally, what sub-problems or other issues are created because of the larger problems?
Next, you need to identify and discuss the constraints and opportunities presented by the problems you've outlined. Which problems are susceptible to treatment? Which can be easily cured? What constraints are in place that would make any solution impossible or improbable? What forces are on the side of fixing the problem?
The second part of the section is where you identify competing policy choices. In other words, what are the various options you have to deal with the problems you've identified? Again, you should probably draw some from the literature and some from your own noodle. Be creative and logical.
Next, conduct a cost/benefit analysis of the choices. Costs does not only refer to monetary expenses. What are the social costs? What problems might be presented by adopted a particular solution? What benefits might be realized? In this section you should analyze which solutions would be effective / ineffective against which problems. Finally, you should make realistic assessments of what's possible and what's not. How likely / unlikely is it that a particular solution will be adopted? Which solutions are likely / unlikely to work?
7. Conclusion/Recommendations
The final section where you summarize and take a position. The conclusion for the ARP should contain two sections. The first section should be a conclusion in the traditional sense. Restate the research purpose and restate the relevancy and applicability of the topic. You essentially need to tell the reader once again what you did and why it was important. Further, you need to restate the problem or issue you examined. In short, you need to give the reader a very short thumbnail sketch of what was covered in you paper. The first section should not be that lengthy and should essentially be an almost too brief outline of you entire paper.
The second section of the conclusion should be a presentation of your conclusions. In other words, what did you find out? What can we conclude from your research? How does what you discovered fit into what we knew before? Finally, you need to present a detailed discussion of your recommendations. Here you need to state which policy option(s) you would pursue to solve the problems you've outlined. In addition, you need to explain how the recommendations will address the problems.
Whereas the introduction moves from broad to narrow, the conclusion moves from narrow to broad. In a sense, you draw the reader in and then take them back out to the big picture in the introduction and conclusion.
8. Bibliography
A complete listing of all of the sources you used to complete the ARP. You should follow the guidelines for citation and reference format in the JQ. Manuscript Guidelines handed out in class. Pay attention to punctuation and placement of the items necessary in each bibliographic entry.
9. Appendices (If necessary)
This is where you would put any supporting documentation or other material that you think is relevant, but is too lengthy or ponderous to include in the body of the paper itself.
10. Caveats, points to ponder, and other such stuff
Plagiarism, and how to avoid it
It is essential that you avoid plagiarism: the theft of another’s work and/or ideas--whether intentional or accidental--and the presentation of those words and ideas as you own. It is often unclear what is and what is not plagiarism, therefore here are a few general rules:
1. You cannot use another writer's exact words without using quotation marks and giving a complete citation (indicate the source of the quotation so that a reader can find it--must include author, year, and page number(s)).
2. It is also not acceptable to edit or paraphrase another's words and present the revised version as your own work.
3. Finally, it is not even acceptable to present another's ideas as your own--even if you us totally different words to express those ideas.Caeti's Rule of Thumb #4
When in doubt, cite it out.
Always remember that there is a fine line between being descriptive and B.S.’ing. You should ere on the descriptive side for the purposes of this paper as it is for administration. However, there are two words I would like to introduce you to.
Caeti’s Rule of Thumb #5
When writing any type of paper or report, don't forget to engage in "verbosity." That is, descriptive and explanatory to a fault. Verbosity means to engage in being verbose, or the act of being verbose (a fine tautological definition).Caeti’s Rule of Thumb #6
When finished with any written work, read it and "conciseualize" it. Conciseualize means the act of being concise or editing your writing to say what you want to say clearly and succinctly.
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URL: http://www.unt.edu/cjus/pondera.htm