One of the most important requirements of science is that research be shared. This not only allows others to review the results and conclusions for accuracy, but also allows others to build upon that work. Citing the source of ideas facilitates both goals. If a basic work is found to be flawed or proven incorrect, later work that builds upon it may be held in question. When researchers cite their sources, it provides a link to earlier works which contain links to prior works (and so on). In this way, a researcher can make informed decisions about which work is used to guide new research. Finally, a very important reason to cite sources is to avoid plagiarism by attributing ideas or quotes to their proper authors. To these ends, there are several standardized methods of citation.
Although any complete form of citation satisfies the above requirements, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fourth Edition (1994) sets forth one of the most widely accepted methods, referred to as the APA style. Other acceptable methods include those set forth in the various journals of a discipline or other standardized sources, such as the Chicago style (Turabian) or MLA style. The primary goals of any citation are to identify the source so that it can be found by the reader, and to do so in a consistent manner.
Below is a selection of the most commonly used and/or most widely representative citation formats from the APA style. Some examples are original to this document, some are drawn from the APA Publication Manual, and others are drawn from a source at the University of Illinois, Urbana that has since been changed. I regret that I do not have more specific information to identify the Urbana source (such as author or URL).
If you need information on how to cite a web source or other electronic medium, see APA Web Reference Style
Journal article, single author:
Trojanowicz, R. C. (1983). An evaluation of a neighborhood foot patrol program. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 11, 410-419.
In text: (Trojanowicz, 1983) when reference focus is on content or idea, or Trojanowicz (1983) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Journal article, one author paginated by issue:
Levin, M. A. (1972). Crime and punishment and social science. Public Interest, 27(Spring), 96-103.
In text: (Levin, 1972) when reference focus is on content or idea, or Levin (1972) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Journal article, two authors:
Bartfeld, J., & Meyer, D., R. (1994). Are there really deadbeat dads? The relationship between ability to pay, enforcement, and compliance in nonmarital child support cases. Social Science Review, 68(2), 219-235.
In text: (Bartfeld & Meyer, 1994) when reference focus is on content or idea, or Bartfeld and Meyer (1994) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Journal article, three to five authors:
Kappeler, V. E., Kappeler, S. F., & Del Carmen, R. V. (1993). A content analysis of police civil liability cases: Decisions of the federal district courts. Journal of Criminal Justice, 21(4), 325-337.
In text: (Kappeler, Kappeler, & Del Carmen, 1993) - first time - when reference focus is on content or idea, or Kappeler, Kappeler, & Del Carmen (1993) - first time - when referring to or citing this specific study. (Kappeler et al., 1993) at all other times - when focus on content or idea, Kappeler et al., (1993) - all other times - when referring to this specific study.
Journal article, six or more authors:
Fisher, C. W., Berliner, D. C., Filby, N. N., Marliane, R., Cahen, L. S., & Dishaw, M. M. (1981). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 17(1), 2-15.
In text: (Fisher et al., 1981) - all times - when reference is on content or idea, Fisher et al. (1981) - all times - when referring to this specific study.
Journal article, in press:
McAuley, E., Bane, S. M., Rudolph, D. L., & Lox, C. L. (in press). Physique anxiety and exercise in middle-aged adults. Journal of Gerontology.
In text: (McAuley, Bane, Rudolph, & Lox in press) - first time - when reference focus is on content or idea, McAuley, Bane, Rudolph and Lox (in press) - first time - when referring to or citing this specific study. (McAuley et al.,) - all other times - when reference focus is on content or idea, McAuley et al. (in press) - all other times - when referring to or citing this specific study.
Journal article, multiple articles by the same author or authors in the same year:
Kinkade, P. T. & Leone, M. C. (1992a). The privatization of prisons: the wardens' views. Federal-Probation, 56(4), 58-65.
Kinkade, P. T. & Leone, M. C. (1992b). The effects of `tough' drunk driving laws on policing: a case study. Crime-and-Delinquency, 38(2), 239-257.
In text: (Kinkade, P.T. & Leone, M.C., 1992a) and (Kinkade P.T. & Leone, M.C., 1992b) respectively when reference focus is on content or idea. Kinkade, P.T. & Leone, M.C. (1992a) and Kinkade, P.T. & Leone, M.C. (1992b) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Magazine article:
Jaffee, L., & Ricker, S. (1993, Autumn). Physical activity and self-esteem in girls: The teen years, Melpomene Journal, 19-26.
In text: (Jaffee & Ricker, 1993) when reference focus is on content or idea, or Jaffee and Ricker (1993) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Newsletter, no author:
The new health-care lexicon. (1993, August/September). Copy Editor, 4, 1-2.
In text: ("The new health-care lexicon," 1993). when reference focus is on content or idea, or The new health-care lexicon (1993) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Daily newspaper article, discontinuous pages:
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, The Washington Post, A1, A4
In text: (Schwartz, 1993). when reference focus is on content or idea, or Schwartz (1993) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Entire book, edited (three to five authors):
Dunning, E. G., Maguire, J. A., & Pearton, R. E. (Eds.). (1993). The sports process: A comparative and developmental approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
In text: (Dunning, Maguire, & Pearton, 1993) - when focus is on content- first time; Dunning, Maguire and Pearton (1993) when citing specific text- first time. (Dunning et al., 1993) - when focus is on content- all other times; Dunning et al. (1993) - when citing specific text- all other times.
Entire issue of a journal:
Magill, R. A. (Ed.). (1994). Communicating information to enhance skill learning. Quest, 46(3).
In text: (Magill, 1994) or Magill (1994) when referring to or citing a specific study.
Book, multiple authors:
McPherson, B. D., Curtis, J. E., & Loy, J. W. (1989). The social significance of sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
In text: (McPherson, Curtis, & Loy, 1989) or McPherson, Curtis and Loy (1989).
Entire book, with new edition:
Leonard, W. M., II. (1994). A sociological perspective of sport (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan.
Chapter in an edited book:
Birrell, S., & Cole, C. (1994). Double fault: Renee Richards and the construction and naturalization of difference. In S. Birrell &. C. Cole (Eds.), Women, sport, and culture (pp. 373-397). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Roberts, G. C. (1989). When motivation matters: The need to expand the conceptual model. In J. Skinner, et al. (Eds.) Future directions in exercise/sport research (pp. 71-84). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
In text: (Birrell & Cole, 1994); or Birrell and Cole (1994). Also (Roberts, 1989) or Roberts (1994).
Book group author as publisher:
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. (1993). The shape of the nation: A surveyof state physical education requirements. Reston, VA: Author.
In text: (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance [AAHPERD], 1993) - first time or (AAHPERD, 1993) - all other times.
Unpublished manuscript, university cited:
Spencer, N. (1994). The traveling subculture of the professional women's tennis tour. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois, Urbana.
In text: (Spencer, 1994) or Spencer (1994).
Paper presented at a conference:
Greendorfer, S. L. (1995, September). Title IX, Gender Equity and Backlash. Paper presented at National Girls and Women in Sport Symposium, "Transcending Boundaries", Baltimore, MD.
Poster session:
Blinde, E. M., Greendorfer, S. L., & Sankner, R. J. (1991, April). Differential media coverage of men's and women's intercollegiate basketball. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, San Francisco, CA.
In text: (Blinde, Greendorfer, & Sankner, 1991) or Blinde, Greendorfer and Sankner (1991) - first time. (Blinde et al., 1991) or Blinde et al. (1991) - all other times.
Government report available from GPO or a document deposit service such as the NTIS or ERIC:
Langan, P. A., Fundis, J. V., Greenfeld, L. A. & Schneider, V. W. (1988). Historical statistics on prisoners in state and federal institutions, yearend 1925-86 (United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics No. NCJ-111098). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
In text: (Langan, Fundis, & Greenfeld, 1988) when reference focus is on content or idea, or Langan, Fundis, & Greenfeld (1988) when referring to or citing a specific study.
ERIC document:
Brophy, J. E., & Evertson, C. M. (1974). A process-product correlations in the Texas teacher effectiveness project: Final report (R &D Report No. 4004). Austin, TX: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, The University of Texas at Austin. (ERIC Document Reproduction No. ED 091 394).
In text: (Brophy & Evertson, 1974) or Brophy and Evertson (1974).
Unpublished doctoral dissertation:
Jackson, S. J. (1992). Sport, crisis and Canadian identity in 1988: A cultural analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of IIllinois, Urbana-Champaign.
In text: (Jackson, 1992) or Jackson (1992).
USING APA FORMAT FOR PAPERS:
2) The reference list is always organized in alphabetical order.
3) Make sure you report all information accurately: authors, title, year, volume, page numbers.
4) If in doubt about correct format, ask or refer to the manual.
b) Typing/Formatting your paper: pp 237-246
c) Example of typed papers: pp 258-272
2) Spacing & Punctuation (p. 244).
3) Format of References (p. 194-207).
4) Use an ampersand (&) before the LAST author for a reference (p. 180-182).
5) Always refer to the APA Publication Manual when in doubt about the format. Don't guess!!
6) Always check your references for correct page numbers, date of publication, spelling of authors' names, volume numbers, complete journal title, etc. Misinformation prevents the readers from finding the literature that you have cited in your paper.
7) Be careful with typographical errors.
8) Refer to the APA Publication Manual for specific information on how to format the title page (title, author, running head, page #, etc.), draw tables and figures, body of the paper, and any other matter pertaining to the format of a paper.
9) Proof read your work when you finish. Proof read again the next day or ask someone else to do so.
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at dkloper@scs.cmm.unt.edu Please also use this address to report any errors or broken links. |
| Last Updated: | 4/13/1998 |
| Author: | Kall Loper |
| Title: | The American Psychological Association Reference Style |
| Copyright: | Portions of these notes are excerpted and/or quoted from other sources. Some examples are original to this document, some are drawn from the APA Publication Manual, and others are drawn from a source at the University of Illinois, Urbana that has since been changed. I regret that I do not have more specific information to identify the Urbana source (such as author or URL). The old URL was http://kines199.kines.uiuc.edu/class/apaguide.htm |